Chinese martial arts, also referred to by the
Mandarin Chinese term
wushu (
simplified Chinese:
武术;
traditional Chinese:
武術;
pinyin:
wǔshù) and popularly as
kungfu (Chinese:
功夫; pinyin:
gōngfu), are a number of
fighting styles that have developed over the centuries in
China.
These fighting styles are often classified according to common traits,
identified as "families" (家, jiā), "sects" (派, pài) or "schools" (門,
mén) of martial arts. Examples of such traits include physical exercises
involving animal mimicry, or training methods inspired by
Chinese philosophies, religions and legends. Styles which focus on
qi manipulation are labeled as
internal (内家拳, nèijiāquán), while others concentrate on improving muscle and cardiovascular fitness and are labeled
external (外家拳, wàijiāquán). Geographical association, as in
northern (北拳, běiquán) and
southern (南拳, nánquán), is another popular method of categorization.
Kung-fu and
wushu are terms that have been
borrowed into English to refer to Chinese martial arts. However, the
Chinese terms
kung fu and
wushu 
listen (Mandarin) (help·info);
Cantonese: móuh-seuht) have distinct meanings;
[1] the Chinese literal equivalent of "Chinese martial art" would be
Zhongguo wushu (Chinese:
中國武術; pinyin:
zhōngguó wǔshù).
Wǔshù literally means "
martial art". It is formed from the two words
武術:
武 (
wǔ), meaning "
martial" or "
military" and
術 (
shù), which translates into "
discipline", "
skill" or "
method."
The term
wushu has also become the name for the modern sport of
wushu, an exhibition and full-contact sport of bare-handed and weapons forms (Chinese: 套路, pinyin:
tàolù), adapted and judged to a set of aesthetic criteria for points developed since 1949 in the People's Republic of China.
[2][3]
In Chinese,
kung fu
can also be used in contexts completely unrelated to martial arts, and
refers colloquially to any individual accomplishment or skill cultivated
through long and hard work.
[1] Wushu is a more precise term for general martial activities.
The genesis of Chinese martial arts has been attributed to the need for
self-defense, hunting techniques and military training in
ancient China.
Hand-to-hand combat and
weapons practice were important in training ancient Chinese
soldiers.
[4][5]
While it is clear that various forms of martial arts have been
practiced in China since antiquity, very little detail on specifics can
be recovered for times predating the 16th century. By contrast, there is
a variety of sources on the topic from the
Qing period.
Detailed knowledge about the state and development of Chinese martial arts becomes available from the
Nanjing decade (1928-1937), as the
Central Guoshu Institute established by the
Kuomintang regime made an effort to compile an encyclopedic survey of martial arts schools. Since the 1950s, the
People's Republic of China has organized Chinese martial arts as an exhibition and full-contact sport under the heading of
Wushu.
According to legend, Chinese martial arts originated during the semi-mythical
Xia Dynasty (夏朝) more than 4,000 years ago.
[6] It is said the
Yellow Emperor Huangdi (legendary date of ascension
2698 BCE) introduced the earliest fighting systems to China.
[7]
The Yellow Emperor is described as a famous general who, before
becoming China’s leader, wrote lengthy treatises on medicine, astrology
and the martial arts. One of his main opponents was
Chi You (蚩尤) who was credited as the creator of
jiao di, a forerunner to the modern art of
Chinese Wrestling.
[8]
The earliest references to Chinese martial arts are found in the
Spring and Autumn Annals (5th century BCE),
[9] where a hand to hand combat theory, including the integration of notions of
"hard" and "soft" techniques, is mentioned.
[10] A combat
wrestling system called
juélì or
jiǎolì (角力) is mentioned in the
Classic of Rites (1st century BCE).
[11] This combat system included techniques such as
strikes,
throws,
joint manipulation, and
pressure point attacks. Jiao Di became a sport during the
Qin Dynasty (221–207 BCE). The
Han History Bibliographies record that, by the
Former Han (206 BCE – 8 CE), there was a distinction between no-holds-barred weaponless fighting, which it calls
shǒubó (手搏), for which "how-to" manuals had already been written, and sportive wrestling, then known as juélì or
jiǎolì (角力). Wrestling is also documented in the Shǐ Jì,
Records of the Grand Historian, written by
Sima Qian (ca. 100 BCE).
[12]
In the
Tang Dynasty, descriptions of sword dances were immortalized in poems by
Li Bai. In the
Song and
Yuan dynasties, xiangpu contests were sponsored by the imperial courts. The modern concepts of wushu were fully developed by the
Ming and
Qing dynasties.
[13]
The ideas associated with Chinese martial arts changed with the
evolution of Chinese society and over time acquired some philosophical
bases: Passages in the
Zhuangzi (庄子), a
Daoist
text, pertain to the psychology and practice of martial arts. Zhuangzi,
its eponymous author, is believed to have lived in the 4th century BCE.
The
Tao Te Ching, often credited to
Lao Zi, is another Daoist text that contains principles applicable to martial arts. According to one of the classic texts of
Confucianism,
Zhou Li (周禮/周礼),
Archery and
charioteering were part of the "six arts" (simplified Chinese:
六艺; traditional Chinese:
六藝; pinyin:
liu yi, including
rites,
music,
calligraphy and
mathematics) of the
Zhou Dynasty (1122–256 BCE).
The Art of War (孫子兵法), written during the 6th century BCE by
Sun Tzu (孫子), deals directly with military warfare but contains ideas that are used in the Chinese martial arts.
Daoist practitioners have been practicing
Tao Yin, physical exercises similar to
Qigong that was one of the progenitors to
T'ai Chi Ch'uan, from at least as early as 500 BCE.
[14] In 39–92 CE, "Six Chapters of Hand Fighting", were included in the
Han Shu (history of the Former
Han Dynasty) written by
Pan Ku. Also, the noted physician,
Hua Tuo, composed the "Five Animals Play"—tiger, deer, monkey, bear, and bird, around 220 BCE.
[15]
Daoist philosophy and their approach to health and exercise have
influenced the Chinese martial arts to a certain extent. Direct
reference to Daoist concepts can be found in such styles as the "
Eight Immortals" which uses fighting techniques that are attributed to the characteristics of each immortal.
[16]
The
Shaolin style of wushu is regarded as amongst the first institutionalized Chinese martial arts.
[17] The oldest evidence of Shaolin participation in combat is a stele from 728 CE that attests to two occasions: a defense of the
Shaolin Monastery from bandits around 610 CE, and their subsequent role in the defeat of
Wang Shichong at the
Battle of Hulao
in 621 CE. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, there are no extant
documents that provide evidence of Shaolin participation in combat.
Between the 16th and 17th centuries there are at least forty sources
which provide evidence that not only did the monks of Shaolin practice
martial arts, but martial practice had become such an integral element
of Shaolin monastic life that the monks felt the need to justify it by
creating new Buddhist lore, the earliest appearance of the frequently
cited legend concerns
Bodhidharma's supposed foundation of
Shaolin Kung Fu dates to this period.
[18] The origin of this legend has been traced to the
Ming period's
Yijin Jing or "Muscle Change Classic", a text written in 1624
attributed to Bodhidharma.
Depiction of fighting monks demonstrating their skills to visiting dignitaries (early 19th-century mural in the
Shaolin Monastery).
References of martial arts practice in Shaolin appear in various
literary genres of the late Ming: the epitaphs of Shaolin warrior monks,
martial-arts manuals, military encyclopedias, historical writings,
travelogues, fiction and poetry. However these sources do not point out
to any specific style originated in Shaolin.
[19]
These sources, in contrast to those from the Tang period, refer to
Shaolin methods of armed combat. This include a skill for which Shaolin
monks had become famous—the
staff (
gùn, Cantonese
gwan). The Ming General
Qi Jiguang
included description of Shaolin Quan Fa (Pinyin romanization: Shào Lín
Quán Fǎ or Wade-Giles romanization Shao Lin Ch'üan Fa, 少 林 拳 法 "fist
principles"; Japanese pronunciation: Shorin Kempo or Kenpo) and staff
techniques in his book,
Ji Xiao Xin Shu
(紀效新書), which can be translated as "New Book Recording Effective
Techniques". When this book spread to East Asia, it had a great
influence on the development of martial arts in regions such as Okinawa
[20] and Korea.
[21]
[edit] Republican period
Most fighting styles that are being practiced as traditional Chinese
martial arts today reached their popularity within the 20th century.
Some of these include
Bagua,
Drunken Boxing,
Eagle Claw,
Five Animals,
Hsing I,
Hung Gar,
Monkey,
Bak Mei Pai,
Praying Mantis,
Fujian White Crane,
Jow Ga,
Wing Chun and
T'ai Chi Ch'uan. The increase in the popularity of those styles is a result of the dramatic changes occurring within the Chinese society.
In 1900-01, the
Righteous and Harmonious Fists rose against foreign occupiers and Christian missionaries in China. This uprising is known in the West as the
Boxer Rebellion due to the martial arts and calisthenics practiced by the rebels. Though it originally opposed the
Manchu Qing Dynasty, the
Empress Dowager Cixi
gained control of the rebellion and tried to use it against the foreign
powers. The failure of the rebellion led ten years later to the fall of
the
Qing Dynasty and the creation of the
Chinese Republic.
The present view of Chinese martial arts are strongly influenced by the events of the
Republican Period (1912–1949). In the transition period between the fall of the
Qing Dynasty
as well as the turmoils of the Japanese invasion and the Chinese Civil
War, Chinese martial arts became more accessible to the general public
as many martial artists were encouraged to openly teach their art. At
that time, some considered martial arts as a means to promote national
pride and build a strong nation. As a result, many training manuals (拳谱)
were published, a training academy was created, two national
examinations were organized as well as demonstration teams travelled
overseas,
[22] and numerous martial arts associations were formed throughout China and in various overseas Chinese communities. The
Central Guoshu Academy (Zhongyang Guoshuguan, 中央國術館/中央国术馆) established by the National Government in 1928
[23] and the
Jing Wu Athletic Association (精武體育會/精武体育会) founded by
Huo Yuanjia in 1910 are examples of organizations that promoted a systematic approach for training in Chinese martial arts.
[24][25][26]
A series of provincial and national competitions were organized by the
Republican government starting in 1932 to promote Chinese martial arts.
In 1936, at the 11th Olympic Games in Berlin, a group of Chinese martial
artists demonstrated their art to an international audience for the
first time.
The term
Kuoshu (or
Guoshu,
國術 meaning "national art"), rather than the colloquial term
gongfu was introduced by the Kuomintang in an effort to more closely associate Chinese martial arts with
national pride rather than individual accomplishment.
Chinese martial arts experienced rapid international dissemination with the end of the
Chinese Civil War and the founding of the
People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949. Many well known martial artists chose to escape from the PRC's rule and migrate to
Taiwan,
Hong Kong,
[27] and other parts of the world. Those
masters started to teach within the
overseas Chinese communities but eventually they expanded their teachings to include people from other ethnic groups.
Within China, the practice of traditional martial arts was discouraged during the turbulent years of the
Chinese Cultural Revolution (1969–1976).
[3] Like many other aspects of traditional Chinese life, martial arts were subjected to a radical transformation by the
People's Republic of China in order to align them with
Maoist revolutionary doctrine.
[3] The
PRC promoted the committee-regulated sport of
Wushu
as a replacement to independent schools of martial arts. This new
competition sport was disassociated from what was seen as the
potentially
subversive self-defense aspects and family lineages of Chinese martial arts.
[3]
In 1958, the government established the All-China Wushu Association
as an umbrella organization to regulate martial arts training. The
Chinese State Commission for Physical Culture and Sports took the lead
in creating standardized forms for most of the major arts. During this
period, a national Wushu system that included standard forms, teaching
curriculum, and instructor grading was established. Wushu was introduced
at both the high school and university level. The suppression of
traditional teaching was relaxed during the
Era of Reconstruction (1976–1989), as Communist ideology became more accommodating to alternative viewpoints.
[28]
In 1979, the State Commission for Physical Culture and Sports created a
special task force to reevaluate the teaching and practice of Wushu. In
1986, the Chinese National Research Institute of Wushu was established
as the central authority for the research and administration of Wushu
activities in the People's Republic of China.
[29]
Changing government policies and attitudes towards sports in general lead to the closing of the
State Sports Commission
(the central sports authority) in 1998. This closure is viewed as an
attempt to partially de-politicize organized sports and move Chinese
sport policies towards a more
market-driven approach.
[30]
As a result of these changing sociological factors within China, both
traditional styles and modern Wushu approaches are being promoted by the
Chinese government.
[31]
Chinese martial arts are an integral element of 20th-century Chinese popular culture.
[32] Wuxia
or "martial arts fiction" is a popular genre which emerged in the early
20th century and peaked in popularity during the 1960s to 1980s.
Wuxia films
were produced from the 1920s. The Kuonmintang suppressed wuxia,
accusing it of promoting superstition and violent anarchy. Because of
this, wuxia came to flourish in
British Hong Kong, and the genre of
kung fu movie in
Hong Kong action cinema became
wildly popular, coming to international attention from the 1970s. The
genre declinded somewhat during the 1980s, and in the late 1980s the
Hong Kong film industry underwent a drastic decline, even before Hong Kong was handed to the People's Republic in 1997. In the wake of
Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), there has been somewhat of a revival of Chinese-produced wuxia films aimed at an international audience, including
Hero (2002),
House of Flying Daggers (2004) and
Reign of Assassins (2010).
China has a long history of martial traditions that includes hundreds
of different styles. Over the past two thousand years many distinctive
styles have been developed, each with its own set of techniques and
ideas.
[33]
There are also common themes to the different styles, which are often
classified by "families" (家, jiā), "sects" (派, pai) or "schools" (門,
men). There are styles that mimic movements from animals and others that
gather inspiration from various
Chinese philosophies, myths and legends. Some styles put most of their focus into the harnessing of
qi, while others concentrate on competition.
Chinese martial arts can be split into various categories to differentiate them: For example,
external (外家拳) and
internal (内家拳).
[34] Chinese martial arts can also be categorized by location, as in
northern (北拳) and
southern (南拳) as well, referring to what part of China the styles originated from, separated by the
Yangtze River (Chang Jiang); Chinese martial arts may even be classified according to their province or city.
[22]
The main perceived difference between northern and southern styles is
that the northern styles tend to emphasize fast and powerful kicks, high
jumps and generally fluid and rapid movement, while the southern styles
focus more on strong arm and hand techniques, and stable, immovable
stances and fast footwork. Examples of the northern styles include
changquan and
xingyiquan. Examples of the southern styles include
Bak Mei,
Wuzuquan,
Choy Li Fut and
Wing Chun. Chinese martial arts can also be divided according to religion, imitative-styles (象形拳), and family styles such as
Hung Gar
(洪家). There are distinctive differences in the training between
different groups of the Chinese martial arts regardless of the type of
classification. However, few experienced martial artists make a clear
distinction between internal and external styles, or subscribe to the
idea of northern systems being predominantly kick-based and southern
systems relying more heavily on upper-body techniques. Most styles
contain both hard and soft elements, regardless of their internal
nomenclature. Analyzing the difference in accordance with yin and yang
principles, philosophers would assert that the absence of either one
would render the practitioner's skills unbalanced or deficient, as yin
and yang alone are each only half of a whole. If such differences did
once exist, they have since been blurred.
Chinese martial arts training consists of the following components:
basics, forms, applications and weapons; different styles place varying
emphasis on each component.
[35] In addition, philosophy, ethics and even medical practice
[36]
are highly regarded by most Chinese martial arts. A complete training
system should also provide insight into Chinese attitudes and culture.
[37]
The
Basics (基本功) are a vital part of any martial training, as a
student cannot progress to the more advanced stages without them;
Basics are usually made up of rudimentary techniques,
conditioning exercises, including
stances.
Basic training may involve simple movements that are performed
repeatedly; other examples of basic training are stretching, meditation,
striking,
throwing,
or jumping. Without strong and flexible muscles, management of Qi or
breath, and proper body mechanics, it is impossible for a student to
progress in the Chinese martial arts.
[38][39] A common saying concerning basic training in Chinese martial arts is as follows:
[40]
内外相合，外重手眼身法步，内修心神意氣力。
Which can be translated as:
Train both Internal and External.
External training includes the hands, the eyes, the body and stances.
Internal training includes the heart, the spirit, the mind, breathing and strength.
Stances (steps or 步法) are structural postures employed in Chinese martial arts training.
[41][42]
They represent the foundation and the form of a fighter's base. Each
style has different names and variations for each stance. Stances may be
differentiated by foot position, weight distribution, body alignment,
etc. Stance training can be practiced statically, the goal of which is
to maintain the structure of the stance through a set time period, or
dynamically, in which case a series of movements is performed
repeatedly. The
horse-riding stance (骑马步/马步 qí mǎ bù/mǎ bù) and the
bow stance are examples of stances found in many styles of Chinese martial arts.
In many Chinese martial arts,
meditation
is considered to be an important component of basic training.
Meditation can be used to develop focus, mental clarity and can act as a
basis for
qigong training.
[43][44]
The concept of
qi or
ch'i (氣/气) is encountered in a number of Chinese martial arts.
Qi
is variously defined as an inner energy or "life force" that is said to
animate living beings; as a term for proper skeletal alignment and
efficient use of musculature (sometimes also known as
fa jin or
jin);
or as a shorthand for concepts that the martial arts student might not
yet be ready to understand in full. These meanings are not necessarily
mutually exclusive.
[note 1] The existence of
qi as a measurable form of energy as discussed in
traditional Chinese medicine has no basis in the scientific understanding of physics, medicine, biology or human physiology.
[45]
There are many ideas regarding the control of one's qi energy to such
an extent that it can be used for healing oneself or others: the goal
of medical qigong. Some styles believe in focusing qi into a single
point when attacking and aim at specific areas of the human body. Such
techniques are known as
dim mak and have principles that are similar to
acupressure.
[46]
[edit] Weapons training
Most Chinese styles also make use of training in the broad arsenal of
Chinese weapons for conditioning the body as well as coordination and
strategy drills.
[47]
Weapons training (qìxiè 器械) are generally carried out after the student
is proficient in the basics, forms and applications training. The basic
theory for weapons training is to consider the weapon as an extension
of the body. It has the same requirements for footwork and body
coordination as the basics.
[48]
The process of weapon training proceeds with forms, forms with partners
and then applications. Most systems have training methods for each of
the
Eighteen Arms of Wushu (shíbābānbīngqì 十八般兵器) in addition to specialized instruments specific to the system.
Application refers to the
practical use of combative techniques. Chinese martial arts techniques are ideally based on efficiency and effectiveness.
[49][50] Application includes non-compliant drills, such as
Pushing Hands in many internal martial arts, and
sparring, which occurs within a variety of contact levels and rule sets.
When and how applications are taught varies from style to style.
Today, many styles begin to teach new students by focusing on exercises
in which each student knows a prescribed range of combat and technique
to be drilled; these drills are often semi-compliant, meaning one
student does not offer active resistance to a technique in order to
allow its demonstrative, clean execution. In more resisting drills,
fewer rules are applied and students practice how to react and respond.
'Sparring' refers to the most important aspect of application training,
which simulates a combat situation while including rules and regulations
in order to reduce the chance of serious injury to the students.
Competitive sparring disciplines include Chinese
kickboxing Sǎnshǒu(散手) and Chinese
folk wrestling Shuāijiāo(摔跤), which were traditionally contested on a raised platform arena
Lèitái(擂台).
[51] Lèitái represents public challenge matches that first appeared in the
Song Dynasty. The objective for those contests was to knock the opponent from a raised platform by any means necessary.
San Shou
represents the modern development of Lei Tai contests, but with rules
in place to reduce the chance of serious injury. Many Chinese martial
art schools teach or work within the rule sets of Sanshou, working to
incorporate the movements, characteristics, and theory of their style.
[52] Chinese martial artists also compete in non-Chinese or mixed
Combat sport, including boxing, kickboxing and
Mixed martial arts.
Forms or
taolu (Chinese:
套路; pinyin:
tào lù)
in Chinese are series of predetermined movements combined so they can
be practiced as one linear set of movements. Forms were originally
intended to preserve the lineage of a particular style branch, and were
often taught to advanced students who were selected to preserve the
art's lineage. Forms were designed to contain both literal,
representative and exercise-oriented forms of applicable techniques
which would be extracted, tested and trained by students through
sparring sessions.
[53]
Today, many consider forms to be one of the most important practices
in Chinese martial arts. Traditionally, they played a smaller role in
training combat application, and were eclipsed by sparring, drilling and
conditioning. Forms gradually build up a practitioner's flexibility,
internal and external strength, speed and stamina, and teach balance and
coordination. Many styles contain forms using a wide range of weapons
of various length and type, utilizing one or two hands. There are also
styles which focus on a certain type of weapon. Forms are meant to be
both practical, usable, and applicable as well as promoting flow,
meditation, flexibility, balance and coordination. Teachers are often
heard to say "train your form as if you were sparring and spar as if it
were a form."
There are two general types of forms in Chinese martial arts. Most
common are "solo forms" which are performed by a single student. There
are also "sparring" forms, which are choreographed fighting sets
performed by two or more people. Sparring forms were designed both to
acquaint beginning fighters with basic measures and concepts of combat,
and to serve as performance pieces for the school. Sparring forms which
utilize weapons are especially useful for teaching students the
extension, range and technique required to manage a weapon.
The term “taolu (套路)” is a shorten version of “Tao Lu Yun Dong
(套路运动)”; an expression that was introduced only recently with the
popularity modern wushu. This expression refers to “exercise sets” and
is used in the context of athletics or sport.
In contrast, in traditional Chinese martial arts alternative terminologies for the training (練) of 'sets or forms
are:
- lian quan tao (練拳套)- practicing sequence of fist;
- lian quan jiao (練拳腳) - practicing fists and feet;
- lian bing qi (練兵器) - practicing weapons;
- dui da (對打) and dui lian (對練) - fighting sets.
Traditional "sparring" sets, called dui da, 對打 or, dui lian, 對練, were
an important part of Chinese martial arts for centuries. Dui lian (對練),
literally means, to train by a pair of combatants opposing each other
(the character l練, means to practice; to train; to perfect one's skill;
to drill). As well, often one of these terms are also included in the
name of fighting sets: 雙演, shuang yan, 'paired practice'; 掙勝, zheng
sheng, 'to struggle with strength for victory'; 敵, di, ' match – the
character suggests to strike an enemy; and 破, po, 'to break'.
Generally there are 21, 18, 12, 9 or 5 drills or
'exchanges/groupings' of attacks and counter attacks, in each dui lian, 對
練 set. These drills were considered only generic patterns and never
meant to be considered inflexible 'tricks'. Students practiced smaller
parts/exchanges, individually with opponents switching sides in a
continuous flow. Basically, dui lian were not only a sophisticated and
effective methods of passing on the fighting knowledge of the older
generation, they were important and effective training methods. The
relationship between single sets and contact sets is quite complicated
in that in many cases there are skills which simply can not be developed
with single sets, and, conversely, with dui lian. Unfortunately, it
appears that most traditional combat oriented dui lian and their
training methodology have disappeared, especially those concerning
weapons. There are a number of reasons for this. In modern Chinese
martial arts most of the dui lian are recent inventions designed for
light props resembling weapons, with safety and drama in mind. The role
of this kind of training has degenerated to the point of being useless
in a practical sense, and, at best, is just performance.
By the early Song period, sets were not so much "individual isolated
technique strung together" but rather were composed of techniques and
counter technique groupings. It is quite clear that "sets" and "fighting
(2 person) sets" have been instrumental in TCM for many hundreds of
years - even before the Song Dynasty. There are images of two person
weapon training in Chinese stone painting going back at least to the
Eastern Han Dynasty.
According to what has been passed on by the older generations, the
approximate ratio of contact sets to single sets was approximately 1:3.
In other words, about 30% of the sets practiced at Shaolin were contact
sets, dui lian, 對 練, and two person drill training. This is, in part,
evidenced by the Qing Dynasty mural at Shaolin.
Ancient literature from the Tang and Northern Song Dynasties suggests
that some sets, including those which required two or more
participants, became very elaborate, "flowery", and mainly concerned
with aesthetics. During this time, some martial arts systems devolved to
the point that they became popular forms of martial art storytelling
entertainment shows. This created an entire new category of martial arts
known as Hua Fa Wuyi , 花法武藝, or "fancy patterns for developing military
skill". During the Northern Song period it was noted by historians that
this phenomenon had a negative influence on training in the military.
For most of its history, Shaolin martial arts was largely
weapon-focused: staves were used to defend the monastery, not bare
hands. Even the more recent military exploits of Shaolin during the Ming
and Qing Dynasties involved weapons. According to some traditions,
monks first studied basics for one year and were then taught staff
fighting so that they could protect the monastery. Although wrestling
has been as sport in China for centuries, weapons have been the most
important part of Chinese wushu since ancient times. If one wants to
talk about recent or 'modern' developments in Chinese martial arts
(including Shaolin for that matter), it is the over-emphasis on bare
hand fighting. During the Northern Song Dynasty (976- 997 A.D) when
platform fighting known as Da Laitai (Title Fights Challenge on
Platform) first appeared, these fights were with only swords and staves.
Although later, when bare hand fights appeared as well, it was the
weapons events that became the most famous. These open-ring competitions
had regulations and were organized by government organizations; some
were also organized by the public. The government competitions resulted
in appointments to military posts for winners and were held in the
capital as well as in the prefectures.
Even though forms in Chinese martial arts are intended to depict
realistic martial techniques, the movements are not always identical to
how techniques would be applied in combat. Many forms have been
elaborated upon, on the one hand to provide better combat preparedness,
and on the other hand to look more aesthetically pleasing. One
manifestation of this tendency toward elaboration which goes beyond
combat application is the use of lower stances and higher, stretching
kicks. These two maneuvers are unrealistic in combat and are utilized in
forms for exercise purposes.
[54]
Many modern schools have replaced practical defense or offense
movements with acrobatic feats that are more spectacular to watch,
thereby gaining favor during exhibitions and competitions.
[note 2] This has led to criticisms by traditionalists of the endorsement of the more acrobatic, show-oriented Wushu competition.
[55]
Even though appearance has always been important in many traditional
forms as well, all patterns exist for their combat functionality.
Historically forms were often performed for entertainment purposes long
before the advent of modern Wushu as practitioners have looked for
supplementary income by performing on the streets or in theaters. As
documented in ancient literature during the Tang Dynasty (618–907) and
the
Song Dynasty
(960–1279) suggest some sets, (including two + person sets: dui da, 對打
also called dui lian, 對 練) became very elaborate and 'flowery', many
mainly concerned with esthetics. During this time, some martial arts
systems de-evolved to the point that they became popular forms of
martial art storytelling entertainment shows. This created an entire
category of martial arts known as Hua Fa Wuyi , 花法武藝 - fancy patterns
for developing military skill. During the Northern Song period, it was
noted by historians this type of training had a negative influence on
training in the military.
Many traditional Chinese martial artists, as well as practitioners of
modern sport combat, have become critical of the perception that forms
work is more relevant to the art than sparring and drill application,
while most continue to see traditional forms practice within the
traditional context—as vital to both proper combat execution, the
Shaolin aesthetic as art form, as well as upholding the meditative
function of the physical art form.
[56]
Another reason why techniques often appear different in forms when
contrasted with sparring application is thought by some to come from the
concealment of the actual functions of the techniques from outsiders.
[57]
Modern forms are used in the sport of
wushu, as seen in this staff routine
“‘Wu’ 武” is translated as ‘martial’ in English, however in terms of
etymology, this word has a slightly different meaning. In Chinese, “wu
武” is made up of two parts, the first meaning “stop”(zhi 止) and the
second meaning “invaders lance” (je 戈). This implies that “wu’ 武,” is a
defensive use of combat. The term “wushu 武術” meaning martial arts goes
back only to the beginning of the 20th century. Prior to that it meant
military affairs. The earliest term found in the Han History
(206BC-23AD) was "bing jiqiao" 兵技巧，military fighting techniques. During
the Song period (c960) the name changed to "wuyi" 武艺，literally "martial
arts". In 1928 the name was changed to "guoshu" 国术 or "national arts"
when the National Martial Arts Academy was established in Nanjing. The
term reverted to "wushu" 武術 under the People's Republic of China during
the early 1950s.
As forms have grown in complexity and quantity over the years, and
many forms alone could be practiced for a lifetime, modern styles of
Chinese martial arts have developed that concentrate solely on forms,
and do not practice application at all. These styles are primarily aimed
at exhibition and competition, and often include more acrobatic jumps
and movements added for enhanced visual effect
[58]
compared to the traditional styles. Those who generally prefer to
practice traditional styles, focused less on exhibition, are often
referred to as traditionalists. Some traditionalists consider the
competition forms of today's Chinese martial arts as too commercialized
and losing much of its original values.
[59][60]
Traditional Chinese schools of martial arts, such as the famed
Shaolin
monks, often dealt with the study of martial arts not just as a means
of self-defense or mental training, but as a system of ethics.
[37][61] Wude (
武 德) can be translated as "martial morality" and is constructed from the words "wu" (
武), which means martial, and "de" (
德),
which means morality. Wude (武德) deals with two aspects; "morality of
deed" and "morality of mind". Morality of deed concerns social
relations; morality of mind is meant to cultivate the inner harmony
between the emotional mind (Xin,
心) and the wisdom mind (Hui,
慧). The ultimate goal is reaching "no extremity" (Wuji,
無 極) (closely related to the
Taoist concept of
wu wei), where both wisdom and emotions are in harmony with each other.
Virtues:
- See also: Category: Chinese martial artists and Category: Wushu practitioners
Examples of well-known practitioners (武术名师) throughout history:
- Yue Fei (1103–1142 CE) was a famous Chinese general and patriot of the Song Dynasty. Styles such as Eagle Claw and Xingyi attribute their creation to Yue. However, there is no historical evidence to support the claim he created these styles.
- Ng Mui (late 17th century) was the legendary female founder of many Southern martial arts such as Wing Chun Kuen, Dragon style and Fujian White Crane. She is often considered one of the legendary Five Elders who survived the destruction of the Shaolin Temple during the Qing Dynasty.
- Yang Luchan (1799–1872) was an important teacher of the internal martial art known as t'ai chi ch'uan in Beijing during the second half of the 19th century. Yang is known as the founder of Yang style tai chi chuan, as well as transmitting the art to the Wu/Hao, Wu and Sun t'ai chi families.
- Ten Tigers of Canton (late 19th century) was a group of ten of the top Chinese martial arts masters in Guangdong (Canton) towards the end of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). Wong Kei-Ying, Wong Fei Hung's father, was a member of this group.
- Wong Fei Hung
(1847–1924) was considered a Chinese folk hero during the Republican
period. More than one hundred Hong Kong movies were made about his life.
Sammo Hung, Jackie Chan, and Jet Li have all portrayed his character in blockbuster pictures.
- Huo Yuanjia (1867–1910) was the founder of Chin Woo Athletic Association who was known for his highly publicized matches with foreigners. His biography was recently portrayed in the movie Fearless (2006).
- Yip Man (1893–1972) was a master of the Wing Chun and the first to teach this style openly. Yip Man was the teacher of Bruce Lee. Most major branches of Wing Chun that exist today were developed and promoted by students of Yip Man.
- Bruce Lee (1940–1973) was a Chinese American martial artist and actor who was considered an important icon in the 20th century.[62] He practiced Wing Chun
and made it famous. Using Wing Chun as his base and learning from the
influences of other martial arts his experience exposed him to, he later
developed his own martial arts philosophy which evolved into what is
now known as Jeet Kune Do.
- Jackie Chan
(b. 1954) is a Chinese martial artist and actor widely known for
injecting physical comedy into his martial arts performances, and for
performing complex stunts in many of his films.
- Jet Li (b. 1963) is the five-time sport wushu champion of China, later demonstrating his skills in cinema.
- Donnie Yen (b. 1963) is a Hong Kong actor, martial artist, film director and producer, action choreographer, and world wushu tournament medalist.
References to the concepts and use of Chinese martial arts can be
found in popular culture. Historically, the influence of Chinese martial
arts can be found in books and in the performance arts specific to Asia
[citation needed].
Recently, those influences have extended to the movies and television
that targets a much wider audience. As a result, Chinese martial arts
have spread beyond its ethnic roots and have a global appeal.
[63][64]
Martial arts play a prominent role in the literature genre known as
wuxia
(武侠小说). This type of fiction is based on Chinese concepts of chivalry, a
separate martial arts society (Wulin, 武林) and a central theme involving
martial arts.
[65] Wuxia stories can be traced as far back as 2nd and 3rd century BCE, becoming popular by the
Tang Dynasty and evolving into novel form by the
Ming Dynasty. This genre is still extremely popular in much of
Asia[citation needed] and provides a major influence for the public perception of the martial arts.
Martial arts influences can also be found in
Chinese opera of which
Beijing opera is one of the best-known examples. This popular form of drama dates back to the
Tang Dynasty
and continues to be an example of Chinese culture. Some martial arts
movements can be found in Chinese opera and some martial artists can be
found as performers in Chinese operas.
In modern times, Chinese martial arts have spawned the genre of cinema known as the
martial arts film. The films of Bruce Lee were instrumental in the initial burst of Chinese martial arts' popularity in the West in the 1970s.
[66]
Martial artists and actors such as
Jet Li and
Jackie Chan
have continued the appeal of movies of this genre. Martial arts films
from China are often referred to as "kungfu movies" (功夫片), or "wire-fu"
if extensive wire work is performed for special effects, and are still
best known as part of the tradition of kungfu theater. (see also: wuxia,
Hong Kong action cinema).
In the west, Kung fu has become a regular action staple, and makes
appearances in many films that would not generally be considered
"Martial Arts" films. These films include but are not limited to
The Matrix Trilogy,
Kill Bill, and
The Transporter.
Martial arts themes can also be found on television networks. A
U.S. network
TV western series of the early 1970s called
Kung Fu
also served to popularize the Chinese martial arts on television. With
60 episodes over a three-year span, it was one of the first North
American TV shows that tried to convey the philosophy and practice in
Chinese martial arts.
[67][68]
The use of Chinese martial arts techniques can now be found in most TV
action series, although the philosophy of Chinese martial arts is seldom
portrayed in depth.
